Both modes of lithium loss reduce the charge “currency” or lithium inventory, and thus the battery’s capacity, because there will be a diminished amount of lithium freely available to convey charge between the positive and negative electrodes.
Figure 2 outlines the range of causes of degradation in a LIB, which include physical, chemical, mechanical and electrochemical failure modes. The common unifier is the continual loss of lithium (the charge currency of a LIB). 3 The amount of energy stored by the battery in a given weight or volume.
Consumption of the cell’s lithium ions through SEI growth is one contributing factor to the degradation mode known as loss of lithium inventory (LLI). Because these reactions occur even when the cell is not in use, known as calendar aging, lithium-ion battery degradation is unavoidable.
(ii) In a worst-case scenario, the metallic lithium can grow into branch-like structures called dendrites, which can protrude through the insulating separator and short-circuit the battery. This can cause a catastrophic failure mode, as has been seen in high-profile EV fires covered in the media.
Lithium ions must be able to move freely and reversibly between and within the battery’s electrodes. Several factors can impede this free movement and can cause a battery to prematurely age and degrade its state-of-health (SoH). Over time, successive charging and discharging causes damage to the battery’s materials.
For the reactive lithium ions, these journeys are treacherous, with multiple physical and chemical fates that await them. Over time, the resulting loss of active lithium available for charge-carrying is the reason battery performance deteriorates. This is commonly referred to as ‘battery ageing’.
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