Several distribution system operators (DSOs) have been experiencing overvoltage issues due to the high level of PV penetration, such as in Italy, Spain, Ireland, and Germany [ 2 ]. Once the peak generation of PV systems coincides with the low local loads, reverse power flow occurs and voltage gradually rises [ 3 ].
To prevent the overvoltage in high PV penetration conditions, EESS can be applied in order to store a part of the energy generated by PVs and limit the amount of active power injected into the grid by PV units.
However, overvoltage is the main challenge in many LV grids with PV, and is one of the main limiting factors in increasing PV penetration in LV grids. Overvoltage caused by PV systems happens when the power flow path is reversed from customers to the LV transformers.
Grid reinforcement is suggested as a solution to improve the voltage profiles of customers in the condition of high EV penetration. In a similar way, grid reinforcement seems one of the most effective methods for solving the overvoltage issue in high PV generation conditions .
Nevertheless, only controlling reactive power is not able to yield the best voltage regulation because the reactive power control does not have a significant effect on voltage regulation [ 1 ]. Therefore, a combination of APC and RPA of PV inverters can become a practical solution to overvoltage mitigation.
Therefore, an effective control methodology is essential to mitigate overvoltage issues and maximise the power outputs. There are various solutions that can deal with overvoltage problems, such as cable reinforcement, transformer tap changer adjustment [ 6 ], active power curtailment (APC), and reactive power absorption (RPA) [ 7 ].
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