Our process provides environmentally friendly and sustainable recycling of LIB cathodes and offers a suitable pathway for industrial-scale recycling. The recycling of spent lithium-ion battery (LIB) cathodes is crucial to ensuring the sustainability of natural resources and environmental protection.
Fig. 1: Reuse and recycling pathways considering economic and environmental functions. Our method encompasses the system boundaries of the lithium-ion battery life cycle, namely, cradle-to-grave, incorporating new battery production, first use, refurbishment, reuse, and end-of-life (EOL) stages.
Cite this: ACS Sustainable Chem. Eng. 2024, 12, 7, 2511–2530 Since 1990, lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have been booming in the last decades. Because they are ecofriendly and rechargeable, LIBs have been widely used in portable devices, electric vehicles, and even satellites and aerospace.
In conclusion, we show that the ESS is the best choice for reuse in terms of total profit, while the CBS leads in terms of average daily profit. Direct recycling is the most economical for NMC batteries, and hydrometallurgical recycling is the most economical for LFP batteries.
These results underscore the feasibility and efficiency of the developed hydrometallurgical method for recycling Co and Ni from LIBs and lithium–polymer batteries. The lithium cobalt nickel oxide (LiCoₓNi 1-x O₂, 0 < x < 1) cathode material is widely applicable to commercial LIBs.
When the batteries are subjected to the EOL stage, pretreatment and three recycling technologies are considered, including hydrometallurgical, direct, and pyrometallurgical recycling. Pink and teal icons illustrate the economic and environmental functions of each stage.
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